BIOTECHNOLOGY.......

BIOTECH FIVE

by Shaens Jara on Wednesday, 13 October 2010 at 04:42

Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci, 1997 Mar, 38(3), 665 - 75 Ganciclovir-loaded polymer microspheres in rabbit eyes inoculated with human cytomegalovirus; Veloso AA Jr et al.; PURPOSE: To test the antiviral effect of ganciclovir released from biodegradable polymer microspheres in rabbit eyes inoculated with human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) . METHODS: Human cytomegalovirus (5 x 10(3) plaque forming unit in 0.1 ml Hank's balanced salt solution) was inoculated 4 days after gas compression vitrectomy . Injected after 2 days was 10 mg of 300- to 500-micron ganciclovir-loaded microspheres (89.77 micrograms ganciclovir/mg) suspended in 0.1 ml of 2% hydroxypropylmethylcellulose . Blank microspheres were injected as control specimens . Vitritis, retinitis, and optic neuritis were graded from 0(+)-4+ for 14 days to separate the early HCMV-induced disease events from later nonspecific host inflammatory responses . Ganciclovir-loaded microspheres also were injected and observed for biodegradation and tissue reaction for 8 weeks . RESULTS: In eyes injected with ganciclovir-loaded microspheres, vitritis decreased from days 3 to 14, and retinitis and optic neuritis decreased from days 3 to 9 . In eyes injected with blank microspheres, vitritis increased from days 3 to 7, retinitis increased from days 3 to 9, and optic neuritis increased from days 3 to 14 . Immunofluorescence of HCMV antigens in retinal tissues was shown only in eyes injected with blank microspheres . Histopathologic analysis showed minimal focal disruption of the retinal architecture in eyes injected with ganciclovir-loaded microspheres . Disorganization of the normal retinal architecture was observed in eyes injected with blank microspheres . No adverse tissue reaction was observed clinically and histopathologically in eyes injected with ganciclovir-loaded microspheres after 8 weeks . CONCLUSIONS: Ten milligrams of 300 to 500 microns ganciclovir-loaded poly(D,L-lactide-co-glycolide) microspheres control the progression of fundus disease in HCMV-inoculated rabbit eyes.

J Bacteriol, 1997 Mar, 179(6), 1974 - 9 Purification and molecular characterization of the electron transfer protein of methanesulfonic acid monooxygenase; Higgins TP et al.; A novel serine pathway methylotroph, strain M2, capable of utilizing methanesulfonic acid (MSA) as a sole source of carbon and energy was investigated . The initial step in the biodegradative pathway of MSA in strain M2 involved an inducible NADH-specific monooxygenase enzyme (MSAMO) . Fractionation of MSAMO active cell extracts by ion-exchange chromatography led to the loss of MSAMO activity . Activity was restored by mixing three distinct protein fractions, designated A, B, and C . Further purification to homogeneity of component C indicated that the polypeptide was acidic, with a pI of 3.9, and contained an iron-sulfur center with spectral characteristics similar to those of other proteins containing Rieske {2Fe-2S} centers . The size of the protein subunit and the similarity of the N-terminal sequence to those of ferredoxin components of other oxygenase enzymes have suggested that component C is a specific electron transfer protein of the MSAMO which contains a Rieske {2Fe-2S} cluster . The gene encoding component C of MSAMO was cloned and sequenced, and the predicted protein sequence was compared with those of other Rieske {2Fe-2S}-center-containing ferredoxins . MSAMO appears to be a novel combination of oxygenase elements in which an enzyme related to aromatic-ring dioxygenases attacks a one-carbon (C1) compound via monooxygenation.

Appl Environ Microbiol, 1997 Mar, 63(3), 819 - 26 New metabolites in the degradation of fluorene by Arthrobacter sp . strain F101; Casellas M et al.; Identification of new metabolites and demonstration of key enzyme activities support and extend the pathways previously reported for fluorene metabolism by Arthrobacter sp . strain F101 . Washed-cell suspensions of strain F101 with fluorene accumulated 9-fluorenone, 4-hydroxy-9-fluorenone, 3-hydroxy-1-indanone, 1-indanone, 2-indanone, 3-(2-hydroxyphenyl) propionate, and a compound tentatively identified as a formyl indanone . Incubations with 2-indanone produced 3-isochromanone . The growth yield with fluorene as a sole source of carbon and energy corresponded to an assimilation of about 34% of fluorene carbon . About 7.4% was transformed into 9-fluorenol, 9-fluorenone, and 4-hydroxy-9-fluorenone . Crude extracts from fluorene-induced cells showed 3,4-dihydrocoumarin hydrolase and catechol 2,3-dioxygenase activities . These results and biodegradation experiments with the identified metabolites indicate that metabolism of fluorene by Arthrobacter sp . strain F101 proceeds through three independent pathways . Two productive routes are initiated by dioxygenation at positions 1,2 and 3,4, respectively . meta cleavage followed by an aldolase reaction and loss of C-1 yield the detected indanones . Subsequent biological Baeyer-Villiger reactions produce the aromatic lactones 3,4-dihydrocoumarin and 3-isochromanone . Enzymatic hydrolysis of the former gives 3-(2-hydroxyphenyl) propionate, which could be a substrate for a beta oxidation cycle, to give salicylate . Further oxidation of the latter via catechol and 2-hydroxymuconic semialdehyde connects with the central metabolism, allowing the utilization of all fluorene carbons . Identification of 4-hydroxy-9-fluorenone is consistent with an alternative pathway initiated by monooxygenation at C-9 to give 9-fluorenol and then 9-fluorenone . Although dioxygenation at 3,4 positions of the ketone apparently occurs, this reaction fails to furnish a subsequent productive oxidation of this compound.

J Biol Chem, 1997 Feb 14, 272(7), 3986 - 92 Effector specificity mutants of the transcriptional activator NahR of naphthalene degrading Pseudomonas define protein sites involved in binding of aromatic inducers; Cebolla A et al.; This work reports a genetic analysis of the interactions between NahR, the LysR-type regulator of the NAH operons for biodegradation of naphthalene in Pseudomonas, and its aromatic effectors . Six mutants encoding NahR variants responsive to salicylate analogs such as benzoate, which is not an inducer for the wild type regulator, were isolated with a polymerase chain reaction-based saturation mutagenesis protocol . Most mutants displaying a specific change of effector profile bore single amino acid substitutions within a short protein segment of 60 residues located at the central portion of the NahR sequence . Some of the protein variants exhibited an increased affinity for salicylate and also for otherwise suboptimal effectors, with apparent Ks' values 5-100-fold lower than those of the wild type NahR protein . In addition, all mutants were activated by inducers bearing novel substituents at positions 1 or 2 of the aromatic ring and displayed also an enhanced tolerance to changes at positions 3 and 4 . Correlation between mutations in NahR and the structures of the new effectors suggested that protein sites Met116, Arg132, Asn169, and Arg248 are involved in effector recognition and binding during the earlier steps of the process leading to transcriptional activation of cognate NAH promoters.

J Ind Microbiol Biotechnol, 1997 Feb-Mar, 18(2-3), 161 - 9 Transformations of TNT and related aminotoluenes in groundwater aquifer slurries under different electron-accepting conditions; Krumholz LR et al.; The transport and fate of pollutants is often governed by both their tendency to sorb as well as their susceptibility to biodegradation . We have evaluated these parameters for 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT) and several biodegradation products . Slurries of aquifer sediment and groundwater depleted TNT at rates of 27, 7.7 and 5.9 microM day-1 under methanogenic, sulfate-reducing and nitrate-reducing conditions, respectively . Abiotic losses of TNT were determined in autoclaved controls . Abiotic TNT loss and subsequent transformation of the products was also observed . These transformations were especially important during the first step in the reduction of TNT . Subsequent abiotic reactions could account for all of the transformations observed in bottles which were initially nitrate-reducing . Other controls removed TNT reduction products at much slower rates than slurries containing live organisms . 2-Amino-4,6-dinitrotoluene was produced in all slurries but disappeared in methanogenic and in sulfate-reducing slurries within several weeks . This compound was converted to 2,4-diamino-6-nitrotoluene in all slurries with subsequent removal of the latter from methanogenic and sulfate-reducing slurries, while it persisted in autoclaved controls and in the nitrate-reducing slurries . Aquifer slurries incubated with either 2,4- or 2,6-diaminotoluene showed losses of these compounds relative to autoclaved controls under nitrate-reducing conditions but not under sulfate-reducing or methanogenic conditions . These latter compounds are important as reduced intermediates in the biodegradation of dinitrotoluenes and as industrial chemicals . In experiments to examine sorption, exposure to landfill sediment resulted in losses of approximately 15% of diaminotoluene isomers and 25% of aminodinitrotoluene isomers from initial solution concentrations within 24 h . Isotherms confirmed that the diaminotoluenes were least strongly sorbed and the amino-dinitrotoluenes most strongly sorbed to this sediment, while TNT sorption capacity was intermediate . In our studies, 2,4,6-triaminotoluene sorption capacity was indeterminate due to its chemical instability . Coupled with biodegradation information, isotherms help describe the likelihood of contaminant removal, persistence, and movement at impacted sites.

Chemosphere, 1997 Feb, 34(2), 429 - 46 Comparison of the QSAR models for toxicity and biodegradability of anilines and phenols; Damborsky J et al.; Structure-activity models for toxicity and biodegradability of groups of m-anilines and p-phenols were developed and compared . Hydrophobicity was the most important property in determining toxicity . Whereas, electronic and steric properties were the more important in modeling biodegradation.

J Trauma, 1997 Feb, 42(2), 177 - 82 Use of a porcine dermis template to enhance widely expanded mesh autologous split-thickness skin graft growth: preliminary report; Wang HJ et al.; To answer the question whether a xenograft dermal substitute could enhance skin grafting, we used porcine dermis as a template for a widely expanded mesh autologous split-thickness skin (ASTS) graft in a rat model . Four groups of rats had received widely expanded meshed skin autografts to cover an excised back wound . Group 1 had a bed of autologous dermis, group 2 had porcine xenograft dermis, group 3 had widely expanded meshed autograft alone, and group 4 had no graft with the wound healing by contraction alone . Wounds were studied by clinical inspection for texture and contraction, and by histologic and immunofluorescent techniques . At 2 weeks, there was acceptable ASTS graft take, and most of the wound healed completely by 3 weeks . The integrity of this complex skin graft was maintained for 4 months but wound contraction gradually decreased overall wound size . Size was maintained better in the ASTS-autodermis and ASTS-xenodermis groups at postgraft 4, 5, and 6 weeks when compared with the ASTS graft, and there was no difference between the ASTS-autodermis and ASTS-xenodermis groups . Thus both allodermis and xenodermis provided a similar template to enhance widely expanded mesh skin growth and delay wound contraction . The pathologic studies indicate that the xenodermis collagen was replaced either by fibrosis or by biodegradation to rat collagen . The immunofluorescent study also reflected that anti-porcine antibody activity was hugely diminished in the ASTS-xenodermis graft wound after long-term follow-up . In conclusion, either autodermis or xenodermis enhances widely expanded mesh ASTS survival in a rat model, and could significantly maintain the original wound size better than ASTS graft without a template . In a long-term follow-up study, the porcine dermis was replaced either by fibrosis or biodegradation to rat dermis.

Nat Biotechnol, 1997 Feb, 15(2), 174 - 7 Plant cell biodegradation of a xenobiotic nitrate ester, nitroglycerin; Goel A et al.; The ability of plants to metabolize the xenobiotic nitrate ester, glycerol trinitrate (GTN, nitroglycerin), was examined using cultured plant cells and plant cell extracts . Intact cells rapidly degrade GTN with the initial formation of glycerol dinitrate (GDN) and the later formation of glycerol mononitrate (GMN) . A material balance analysis of these intermediates indicates little, if any, formation of reduced, conjugated or cell-bound carbonaceous metabolites . Cell extracts were shown to be capable of degrading GTN with the simultaneous formation of GDN in stoichiometric amounts . The intermediates observed, and the timing of their appearance, are consistent with a sequential denitration pathway that has been reported for the microbial degradation of nitrate esters . The degradative activities of plant cells are only tenfold less than those reported for bacterial GTN degradation . These results suggests that plants may serve a direct degradative function for the phytoremediation of sites contaminated by organic nitrate esters.

J Chromatogr A, 1997 Jan 31, 760(2), 285 - 91 High-performance liquid chromatographic analysis of a linear alkylbenzenesulfonate and its environmental biodegradation metabolites; Sarrazin L et al.; A simple and fast method is described for determining a linear alkylbenzenesulfonate (LAS) and its potential sulfonated and unsulfonated metabolites in natural waters . This method includes extraction of 60 ml of water with an octadecyl-bonded silica (C18) mini-column and analysis of the extract by high-performance liquid chromatography . A reversed-phase column with a 0.008 M potassium phosphate buffer (pH 2.2)-acetonitrile gradient as the mobile phase provides the separation . A UV detector, set at 215 nm, is employed.

Biomed Chromatogr, 1997 Jan-Feb, 11(1), 50 - 3 Metabolism and bioaccumulation of fenvalerate and its metabolites in rat organs; Misra S et al.; Metabolism and bioaccumulation of fenvalerate and its fenvalerate its metabolites in liver, kidney and brain of rat following the oral administration of a sub-lethal dose (15 mg/kg) of the pesticide for 7, 15 and 30 day periods was investigated by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) in terms of the relative mole concentrations in rat tissues . The cleavage of the ester linkage in fenvalerate yielding two metabolites was found to be primary step in the biodegradation of fenvalerate in rat organs . These metabolites were purified to homogeneity by HPLC and characterized by infra-red spectroscopy as 4-chloro-alpha-(1-methylethyl) benzeneacetic acid and 3-phenoxy benzoic acid.

Biomaterials, 1997 Jan, 18(1), 37 - 45 Application of macromolecular additives to reduce the hydrolytic degradation of polyurethanes by lysosomal enzymes; Tang YW et al.; Of the various polymers used in medical devices, polyurethanes have been relatively successful because of their acceptable mechanical and biological properties . However, over the past decade, increasing concerns have arisen in relation to long-term biostability of polyurethanes when exposed to the harsh environment of the human body . Lysosomal enzymes released from inflammatory cells have been proposed to be important mediators in the degradation of biomedical polyurethanes . In order to increase the biostability of polyurethanes to lysosomal enzymes, a series of surface-modifying macromolecules (SMMs) were synthesized in this work and then combined into a base polyurethane to reduce the material's susceptibility to hydrolysis . X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) studies showed that the SMMs were enriched within the upper 10 nm of the surface . In vitro biodegradation test results indicated that the degradation of a polyester-urea-urethane could be inhibited by the new SMM surface . It was also found that different SMM formulations provided varying degrees of inhibition against the biodegradation of the polyester-urea-urethane . Certain formulations of the SMMs were shown to be physically incompatible with the polyurethane and distorted surface morphology to the extent that biodegradation was enhanced.

J Microencapsul, 1997 Jan-Feb, 14(1), 35 - 49 In vitro biodegradation of polyhydroxybutyrate-hydroxyvalerate microcapsules exposed to Hank's buffer, newborn calf serum, pancreatin and synthetic gastric juice; Atkins TW et al.; Spherical microporous reservoir-type microcapsules, fabricated using a W/O/W double emulsion technique with solvent evaporation and composed of 330 kD poly(beta-hydroxybutyrate-hydroxyvalerate (P(HB-HV)) (10.8% HV)/20% PCL II containing a range of bovine serum albumin (BSA) loadings, were incubated in Hank's buffer, pH 7.4, newborn calf serum (NCS), 1.5% pancreatin and synthetic gastric juice containing 10% pepsin over 30 days, and their percentage weight loss (PWL) and change in ultrastructural morphology monitored by gravimetry and stereoscan electron microscopy (SEM), respectively . The greatest percentage weight loss from microcapsules was observed after incubation in NCS and decreased in the other NCS > pancreatin > synthetic gastric juice > Hank's buffer . Only 5, 10 and 15% bovine serum albumin (BSA) loaded microcapsules incubated in Hank's buffer and synthetic gastric juice showed a significant increase in PWL with increasing percentage BSA loading . The overall sequence of changes in structural morphology due to biodegradation occurred at different rates in the different 'physiological' media . An initial increase in micropore diameter was followed by the coalescence of microspores to form macroporous pits (Hank's buffer) . Further biodegradation in NCS, pancreatin and synthetic juice was characterized by significant surface and bulk erosion . Only in pancreatin and NCS did biodegradation proceed to a loss of spherical shape and partial (pancreatin) and almost total (NCS) disruption of microcapsule structure after 30 days.

Appl Environ Microbiol, 1997 Jan, 63(1), 329 - 31 Nylon biodegradation by lignin-degrading fungi; Deguchi T et al.; The biodegradation of nylon by lignin-degrading fungi was investigated . The fungus IZU-154 significantly degraded nylon-66 membrane under ligninolytic conditions . Nuclear magnetic resonance analysis showed that four end groups, CHO, NHCHO, CH3, and CONH2, were formed in the biodegraded nylon-66 membranes, suggesting that nylon-66 was degraded oxidatively.

J Biomed Mater Res, 1997 Jan, 34(1), 73 - 8 An in vivo study of the biodegradation of the hydrophilic Mitrathane; Maurin N et al.; The present study analyzes the kinetics of the in vivo degradation of hydrophilic Mitrathane in the peritoneal cavity of mice over a period ranging from 1 to 180 days . The mechanical milling of the polyurethane films produced regularly flattened fragments that in vivo spontaneously oriented into piles . The morphological observations and analysis with the aid of an image analysis system demonstrated that after seven days of swelling the polymer fragments undergo a continuous degradation that leads to an irregular thinning and phagocytosis of the smaller fragments by macrophages with very little chronic inflammation response from surrounding tissues.

Rev Environ Contam Toxicol, 1997, 149, 87 - 137 Environmental assessment of the alkanolamines; Davis JW et al.; This review provides a summary of current information available on the environmental fate and aquatic toxicology of the alkanolamines . Because these materials are widely used, there is a need to understand their fate and effects in the environment . This assessment was confined to information regarding selected physical properties of the alkanolamines as well as their potential for degradation in the atmosphere, soil, surface water, and groundwater . In addition, their relevant aquatic toxicological information and bioconcentration potential were evaluated . In general, the alkanolamines have high water solubilities and low to moderate vapor pressures . Some are solids whereas others are liquids at room temperature . Aqueous solutions of the alkanolamines are basic, with the pKas decreasing with increased alkyl substitution . Predictions of the environmental distribution of these compounds, based on a unit world model of Mackay and Paterson, suggested that alkanolamines would partition primarily into the aqueous compartment at equilibrium, with the remainder distributed to the atmosphere . Only a very small fraction of these materials is expected to sorb to soil or sediments . However, adsorption mechanisms other than partitioning into the soil organic layer were not considered in this model . Since polar compounds may sorb to soil by alternate mechanisms, this model may underestimate the true adsorption potential and subsequent environmental distribution of the alkanolamines . Future work with these compounds should focus on other types of adsorption mechanisms that could impact the environmental distribution of the alkanolamines . Although only small amount of the alkanolamines are expected to partition to the atmosphere, they are expected to be removed by reactions with photochemically generated hydroxyl radicals . They may also be removed from the atmosphere by precipitation, due to their high water solubility . Because of the relatively low levels expected to be present in the atmosphere and the relatively short half-lives, the alkanolamines are not expected to adversely impact air quality . Alkanolamines have also been shown to be highly susceptible to biodegradation and are not expected to persist in the environment . Results from numerous studies have shown that these materials undergo rapid biodegradation in soil, surface waters, and wastewater treatment plants . Degradation rates for these compounds may vary, with half-lives routinely in the range of 1 d to 2 wk, depending on the length of acclimation period and other environmental factors . The relatively low bioconcentration factor (BCF) values reported for the alkanolamines indicate that they would not be expected to bioconcentrate in aquatic organisms . Available data on the toxicity of the alkanolamines to aquatic organisms suggest low toxicity to the majority of the species studied . Based on the facts that alkanolamines exhibit low aquatic toxicity, are shown to biodegrade in a wide range of environments, and exhibit no tendency to bioaccumulate, the routine manufacturing, use, and disposal of these materials are not expected to adversely impact the environment . With increased emphasis by consumers and regulatory agencies for industry to develop products that are "environmentally friendly," these properties of the alkanolamines make them an attractive choice for a wide range of applications.

Appl Microbiol Biotechnol, 1996 Dec, 46(5-6), 451 - 63 Biodegradation of polyhydroxyalkanoic acids; Jendrossek D et al.; Stimulated by the commercial availability of bacteriologically produced polyesters such as poly{(R)-3-hydroxybutyric acid}, and encouraged by the discovery of new constituents of polyhydroxyalkanoic acids (PHA), a considerable body of knowledge on the metabolism of PHA in microorganisms has accumulated . The objective of this essay is to give an overview on the biodegradation of PHA . The following topics are discussed: (i) general considerations of PHA degradation, (ii) methods for identification and isolation of PHA-degrading microorganisms, (iii) characterization of PHA-degrading microorganisms, (iv) biochemical properties of PHA depolymerases, (v) mechanisms of PHA hydrolysis, (vi) regulation of PHA depolymerase synthesis, (vii) molecular biology of PHA depolymerases, (viii) influence of the physicochemical properties of PHA on its biodegradability, (ix) degradation of polyesters related to PHA, (x) biotechnological aspects of PHA and PHA depolymerases.

Chemosphere, 1996 Dec, 33(12), 2411 - 21 Physical factors negatively affecting evaluation of long-term biodegradation experiments of polychlorinated biphenyls; Zachar P et al.; Behaviour of PCB added in the form of a technical mixture (Delor 106) and {14C}PCB 77 into different aqueous model cultivation media in long-term experiments was studied . The work was focused on monitoring PCB recovery from liquid media in the absence of micro-organisms . GC-ECD and radioanalysis were utilised for determination of PCB in the examined systems . Strong relations between duration of experiments, composition of media, degree of chlorination of biphenyls, and recovery of PCB were found . The lowest yields of PCB were observed for the extracts from model solutions based on N-limited cultivation media without veratryl alcohol and Tween 80 . The addition of these components, mainly of Tween 80, caused a significant increase of PCB recoveries.

Improving our understanding of inheritance and gene expression Improving our understanding and treatment of genetic disorders (and some diseases) Providing economic benefits in agriculture and the production of biological molecules Increase livestock productivity. Developing biodegradable plastics and innovative biomaterials Decreasing water and air pollution

In order to achieve the required results in these areas you have to know how each system works in the first place. Understanding how cells function lie at the very heart of biotechnology and why it has become so important as we head into the 21st century. Scientists have developed sophisticated ways that are enabling them to unravel the mysteries of life in all its marvellous forms. In so doing, they are opening up opportunities for the commercial exploitation of these discoveries such as those identified above.

Biotechnology in Action: It has been discovered that certain forms of cancer arise from the fact that normal cells fail to respond to the genetic instructions that cause them to enter a natural process of committing suicide. This cell death process is happening in our bodies all the time as old cells, that have served their useful purpose, are removed and replaced with new ones. When the genetic "switches" regulating the normal cell death process fail, instead of being removed, pre-cancerous cells remain and often grow unrestrained. Our knowledge has raised intense interest in the value of producing drugs to control the death regulating machinery. If we could design a drug that would safely reactivate the "death signals" in a cancer cell, without affecting normal tissues, then the cancer would be removed from the body.

This is why programmed cell death (apoptosis) is rapidly becoming one of the hottest areas of biotechnology. The past five years have witnessed an explosion of research efforts in the study of how cells die. By elucidating the molecular mechanisms underlying apoptosis, researchers believe that they will be able to define the mechanisms of certain diseases and develop new pharmaceuticals to aid in their treatment. (AEgera Therapeutics and Gemin X Biotechnologies, in the CMDF portfolio, are both involved in apoptosis research.)

It is stories such as this that is capturing our imagination about biotechnology. Numerous studies report that we have entered an era that has been called the new bioeconomy where major diseases that reap such a devastating toll on humanity are rapidly being unravelled through the use of molecular biology and genetic analysis.

The most simple definition available is that Biotechnology is the use of biological processes to solve problems and to make useful products. On this definition we have been using Biotechnology for thousands of years. We have used the biological processes of micro-organisms to brew beer and wine, and to make foods like bread and cheese.

Major advances in science from the 1950s, and particularly in the last years of the 20th century, have extended the reach of Biotechnology so that its applications today would seem the stuff of science fiction to the early pioneers of the 1950s. These advances have given rise to what many now call "New" Biotechnology - the use of cellular and biomolecular processes to solve problems or make useful products. This collection of technologies now capitalizes on the attributes of cells, such as their manufacturing capabilities, and uses the properties of biological molecules such as DNA and proteins in productive ways to synthesise outcomes for the benefit of all. A Biotech Guide is available.

Some world-wide examples of Biotechnology in practice today include:

the hundreds of drug products and vaccines targeting a myriad of diseases including Alzheimer's disease, heart disease, diabetes, multiple sclerosis, AIDS and arthritis the hundreds of medical diagnostic tests to detect medical conditions early enough for them to be successfully treated agricultural products such as pest-resistant corn that have been developed using biotechnology the use of biotechnology to remediate hazardous waste industrial applications such as the use of enzymes in laundry detergent DNA fingerprinting in forensic situations

Biotechnology is the "science of harnessing the natural and biological capabilities of plants, animals, and microbes for the benefit of people". Generally, biotechnology can be divided into the traditional and the new, or advanced, biotechnologies

Traditional Biotechnology When man first thought of agriculture, traditional biotechnology took form. The selection and cross-breeding of different varieties of grain to produce healthier plants is an example of biotechnology that is still being used today. The same thing is being done with horses and livestock. The process of fermenting malt into beer using certain microbes is another example of traditional biotechnology.

Advanced Biotechnology The traditional methods have been improved upon with the help of scientists called genetic engineers. They work with the genetic material called DNA ( Deoxyribonucleic acid ), a "coding system" found in all living things that controls the features an organism will have. The DNA is grouped together into genes that contain instructions on specific actions, like the production of nutrients in fruits, or the ability of yeast to ferment sugar into alcohol. In genetic engineering, the genes responsible for the desired feature of an organism may be enhanced. Furthermore, beneficial genes can be transferred from one organism to another, as in cross-pollination, but this time in a more direct manner.

What has modern Biotechnology done for me? Biotechnology has probably affected us through most of our lives. When we were young, we were immunized against diseases such as hepatitis B and measles. These vaccines were produced with the aid of biotechnology. When we got sick, the antibiotics that doctors gave us came from bacteria. Even some of the food we eat are biotechnological products. For example, the enzyme chymosin, used to curdle milk into cheese, is now being produced through biotechnology, whereas before, we derived this from the stomachs of slaughtered cows.

Our environment also benefits from biotechnological advances. Toxin- and metal-eating microbes are being developed to clean up polluted waters and industrial waste. Genetic markers have been made to help in the identification of endangered animal species. Endangered plants can be mass-propagated using current techniques. Biodegradable packaging, an alternative to plastics and paper, has also been produced.